Improving Student’s Pronunciation by Listening to the Western Song.

The main goal of teaching of English is to make learners can communicate with English well. As we know, four basic element of teaching English are listening, speaking, reading and writing. But, besides those four basic elements, learners can not communicate in English without good pronunciation. Nowadays, many students who have graduated from senior high school are not able to communicate in English with good pronunciation. They can not discriminate the sounds as well as they producing it. Even though, they have spent several years for study English in their school.

This problem may caused by the influences of their first language to their pronunciation in their second language. Because the English speech sounds are very different from Indonesian and the way how producing sounds also different from Indonesian. But the problem is not only made by the learners. It is also becomes a problem by both student and teacher.
The error on pronunciation is not only made by student, but teachers also involved in this problem. The factor that involved by the teacher comes from the teaching material that used. Sometimes the material can not build the student’s interest to study. On the other hand, as we know almost all of the students as the teenager like to hear music and song. And most of them like to hear the western one. So, why do not we use song in order to make student to have better pronunciation.
By listening to English music and song frequently can improve student’s vocabulary and their ability to pronounce a word in English. And listening to western song is an also interesting way for student to memorize how a word in English to be spoken. “Combining words and melodies to provide a pleasure that charms each new generation”. (Echange : 1991)
As I stated above, almost all of the student really like to hear music and song, especially the western one. This activity can make the student more interesting in study English. As Ostojic(1987:50) also stated,” while listening to music and song, the student can experiment with foreign word and expression in an atmosphere of trust, joy, and reflex ion and the student are ready to enjoy a new and precious experiment”. Or we can said that listening to music and song can encourage and motivating the student to respond to something new and to make student have motivation to learn English.
Finally, in order to solve this problem, that is to make the student have better pronunciation, but in the way that students interested in it. I try to give a solution by using western song to make students have better pronunciation, but in the way that student interested in it. I try to give a solution by using western song to make student to have better pronunciation.
Song provides examples of authentic, memorable and rhythm language. They can be motivating for student keen repeatedly listen to and imitate their musical heroes. There are three aspects of pronunciation that can be focused on through western song as media in teaching pronunciation.
First, using song to focus on sounds. Sounds are the smallest unit from which words are formed and can be categories as vowels and consonants. In this aspect, we as teacher ask the learners to focus on particular sounds, we create activities based on songs rhymes. The rhymes in songs provide learners with repetition of similar sounds. The repetition of similar sounds will help the learners to memorize how a word in English is pronounced. And songs are authentic and easily accessible examples of spoken English. Let me make an example of this activity.
Activity 1.
We replace some of the rhymes in the song with a space or blank. And then the learners have to listen the song carefully and fill the space, using the song to guide them.
The goal of this activity is we hope that the learners could categorize the words according to sounds. And we also focus on the differences between sounds, using the lyrics we show how changing one sound of a word can later the meaning of the word or we usually called it as minimal pairs. By using minimal pairs, we also can create a new activity.
Activity 2.
Choose six words of a song that minimal pair can be created. For example, we take some words forms “imagine” by John Lennon, the words are:
• heaven - even
• hunger –‘anger
• man – mad
We write those words separately on cards and give out one set per group of four or five students. The students and then match the pairs. Then, listen to the song and ‘grab’ the correct one. Choices are then checked against the lyric. By using song in pronunciation class, students have to focus on sounds. Because of the sounds have rhythm that is similar sounds at the end of certain words on the lyrics, the rhymes of the lyric will provide listeners with repetition of the similar sounds. And the student will know how a word in English should be pronounced.
Second, using song to focus on words. Words are combination of sounds which form together to give meaning. A word is uttered in syllables, usually one emphasized the stress and the rest is unstressed. As I stated above, the repetition of similar sounds or rhythm in songs can memorized by student easily. It means student also can memorize how a word should be pronounced easily. And by listening to songs, it will help learners associate the number of syllable in the word of the song with memorable rhythms
The relaxed atmosphere that created by song can expose student to this difficult pronunciation area, without their realizing. As Ostojic stated (1987 : 50), “ while listening to music or song, the student can experiment with foreign words an expression in an atmosphere of trust, joy and reflection and the student are ready to enjoy a new and precious experiment “. Or we can say that listening to song can encourage and motivating the students to respond to something that is new and to make student to have motivation to learn English especially pronunciation skill, without their realizing. So, the students can enjoy in the class, the students will not think that pronunciation is the difficult subject anymore.
Let me show how we use songs to focus on words in activity 3.
Activity 3.
We give out the lyrics from a certain song that appropriate with the grade of student that we going to teach. From the whole lyric, we type some of the words in board form. And then, do not forget to give a space after the words that type in board form, so that student can write the number of syllable of the word. And ask the student to predict how many syllables is each word that type in board form. After students finish their work, we play the song and checking their pronunciation. After student can decide how many syllables in each word, we repeat the activity. But now, student have to underlining which syllable give stressed and which syllable we should not give the stress or unstressed. And once again play the song, and checking their prediction.
Using song to focus on word, the student can decide how many syllables is the word and where can give stress and unstressed in word. The memorable rhythm of the song, it can help the learners to associate the number of syllables in a word. And once again song will make student forget that pronunciation is the difficult subject. Because it creates the relaxed that can expose student to this difficult pronunciation area, without their realizing.
Third, using song to focus on Connected Speech. Connected Speech is the natural way we speak. Connected speech is linking together and emphasizing certain word, rather than each word standing alone. People do not speak in separate word, they speak in logical connected group of words. There are some ways we can connect the speech. The extremely example is contraction.
Contraction is forming two words into one word or we contract two words together. Songs, especially in the chorus, provide real and catchy examples of how the whole phrases are pronounced often to the extend that students find it in difficult to pick out individual words. The music further emphasizes the flow of the words. Songs also just like other spoken text, full of contractions. And student can be keen to reproduce this, in order to sing the song as they hear it.
We hope by using the song that has numerous contracted words to convince learners that contractions are natural in English. To realize this goal we could do activity 4.
Activity 4.
We play the song, we ask the learners to catch the contraction word that they hear form the song during they hear the song. And after the learners catch all of the contraction word of the song, we ask the learners to make the full form of the contraction word that they get from the song.
There are no standard songs for teaching pronunciation. Any song can be an example of different pronunciation aspects. However we should have a clear example song, or a song that have good quality recording. And also a memorable song, likely to appeal to our learners (songs that have been already known by the student), and it is not too fast song and easy to create activities. But it depends on our area of pronunciation we are focusing on. And finally, we should remember, songs are creative works, so be ready to justify the occasional miss-pronunciation to the learners.

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Helping Children Learn to Think in English Through Reading Storybooks by: Patricia F. Neyman

Introduction
My interest in using storybooks for teaching English began when I was teaching middle-school students in Korea. My search for material which could provide a basis for conversation and writing in my classes led me to try some of the many all-English storybooks available. Later I began using them to teach English to two elementary-school students whom I taught on the telephone. The latter experience has been so successful that it motivated me to write this paper.

The middle-school students had been exposed to a lot of English vocabulary. Nevertheless, when I presented them with a page of English writing with no or very little new vocabulary, I was surprised to find that they seemed to have great difficulty with it. "Teacher, this is very difficult!" they would say to me. I concluded that they were lacking in ability to process English. T heir English training has focused mainly on the level of single words (vocabulary lists) and translation into their native language. Reading selections in their elementary and middle-school texts are short and usually accompanied by native language support. Perhaps this is why the students had not moved to the point where, upon encountering words memorized, they were able to instantly connect them to the mental concepts embodied. Their processing probably was mainly occurring in their native language.

The ability to interconnect various mental constructs without reverting to native-language processing is essential not only to reading comprehension, but also to conversation as well. The project described in this paper with the elementary school children convinced me that an early introduction of longer selections could be extremely beneficial in EFL training. Rather than waiting until the later grades, extensive reading should be introduced as early as possible, in order to take advantage of the facility with which children under the age of 12 acquire language.

The key to the success of such reading, however, is to keep the number of new words or idiomatic phrases per page down to a maximum of one or two. This point can't be over-emphasized. The whole idea of such reading is to keep the reader engaged in the story. It requires that the reader be able to get the meaning without stopping often, if at all, to find out the meanings of new words. If new items seriously impede understanding, students get discouraged; and it may turn into another grammar-translation exercise.

Tutoring Project Using Readers
When I began teaching, Bo-kyung was 8 and in 2nd grade. Chang-jun was 9 and in 3rd grade. Chang-jun was getting an hour a week of English in regular school, and both had had some other exposure to English from another private teacher. However, neither knew any English to speak of.

From September 2000 through February 2001 each child logged around 60 hours with me. During this period, each child's daily half-hour on the telephone with me was spent largely in reading texts like Let's Go and Up and Away with English, with storybooks used for variety. Then from March through September, 2001 each logged another 50 hours. Again, lessons were daily. Thirty of these 50 hours were with me (three days a week), the other 20 with another teacher (two days a week). During the latter period I was tutoring them using exclusively readers, while the other teacher worked with them using standard texts. They read a total of 18 books with me during this period. In addition Bo-kyung started to get one hour a week of English in school when she graduated to 3rd grade, and Chang-jun continued to receive the same in 4th grade. We also had two personal visits, in the context of outings with the family.

At first Chang-jun progressed faster than Bo-kyung, but when he was absent for a short period, she caught up with him; and since then the two have been reading the same materials. After the 110 hours of tutoring described, they could easily read and understand the Oxford Classic Tales books at Elementary Level 2, and were beginning on an Elementary Level 3 book. Elementary 2 is listed by Oxford as having a headword [1] count of 300 words, Elementary 3, a count of 400 words.

When they had zero English vocabulary, they got meaning from pictures and my translations of words into their native language (Korean) obtained from dictionaries. This was fine at the beginning, but items not literally translatable and/or not findable in dictionaries appeared very soon ; and then I turned to Korean speakers who could also speak English. Fortunately, the children had already been trained to use a dictionary in English, and we increasingly looked up words in these. We employed English- Korean, English-English, and picture dictionaries. I say "we", because the students and I had the same dictionaries. Later I began checking comprehension by having them do the exercises provided in the readers, or by asking them to give me the meaning of a word in Korean. As soon as they began spontaneously speaking to me, I changed the routine and started having them retell me the stories in their own words.

The kind of word or phrase translation I have described above is the only translation that was done. We started out by going through one basic phonics book. They repeated after me. After that, I switched to having them read whatever book we were using, and that became the basic procedure. They read, and I correct ed their pronunciat ion. When we came to the past tense and future tense, explanations with simple English words were used (yesterday, tomorrow). However, I did use some examples from the little NL I knew to get the time ideas across. Once they got it, I only had to refer to "yesterday" or "tomorrow" to remind them.

A list of what books we used is given below [2] . This sequence is roughly graded in vocabulary, and I provide it only as a possible service to others. I spent hours and hours in bookstores looking at beginning-level readers. Some readers I rejected because I didn't like the story itself. Some seemed too expensive for the amount of reading they provided. Others, especially those of certain publishers, were filled with untranslatable idioms or words which are infrequent ly used. Of course, there are many other possible combinations, and many other books that I didn't see. [3]

Results
What have Chang-jun and Bo-kyung achieved? After around 110 hours of instruction, they are easily reading books that Oxford rates as 300-400 word level. What about the length and complexity of text they can handle? Well, the Oxford Elementary 2 (300 head-words) text has around 70-100 words per page, and 18 pages [4] of text. Here are a couple of sentences from one of them: "When the prince saw Cinderella, he thought, "She is the most beautiful girl in the world!" He went to her and said, "Will you dance with me?" "Yes", she said, "I will." (Cinderella, Oxford Classic Tales). I think it is fair to say that Chang-jun and Bo-kyung ha d gained the capacity to process a lot of fairly complex English at this point, and to do it rather easily. I believe that many teachers who use predominantly the grammar-translation method in EFL teaching would be surprised that such young children could understand what these children were reading.

What about results with regard to speaking? Chang-jun and Bo-kyung's willingness and ability to use words mastered in reading at first lagged noticeably behind their comprehension of them in text. From the beginning, lesson s began with greetings and a little conversation. Naturally it was difficult at first with no vocabulary at all, and all of us were frustrated at times. For quite a while, they resisted talking, and preferred to get right to reading. But there came a point when they began to really try to actively use their limited 300-400 word vocabulary to get close enough to the meaning they had in mind so I c ould get it. One of Chang-jun's first such utterances was : "Teacher, up page, left. What is?" (What's that at the top of the page on the left?) Around that time, Bo-Kyung said, "I find book and bring tomorrow." Both spontaneously produced several respectable English sentences.

Of course, this little trial run should be replicated with more children and some controls. Perhaps Chang-jun and Bo-kyung are just exceptionally bright children. Perhaps the frequency of classes affects the results, or the motivation provided at home. They may be listening to English on TV. I actually believe the work with me was a primary factor, based on what I know; but before these results with regard to speaking can be taken as anything but promising, the method obviously requires systematic testing.

It can definitely be said, however, that this set of observations shows that a graded series of readers can provide a way for children to rapidly increase their ability to handle English text; and that translation is not needed if the stories are correctly graded.

Current ESL Theory and Storybooks
If correctly chosen, storybooks would correspond to the "comprehensible input" which ESL theorists say should be emphasized in the communicative classroom. [5] Reading stories or literature can greatly affect one factor known to be critical in learning a language-motivation. [6] When beginning readers can read a "whole book" it is a source of pride and it also shows them that they actually have a use for the language they are learning.

Extensive reading has been advocated as a means of building vocabulary [7] [8] and in ESL training [9] [10] Although Seal, 1991, [11] cautions that the idea that ESL learners can effortlessly acquire large amounts of vocabulary through context is "largely untested", some studies do indicate that reading and listening to stories positively influence learners' vocabulary and comprehension. [12] [13] Elley and Mangubhai [14] documented the results of a literature-based reading program in eight schools in Fiji. They found that after eight months in the program, the 4th and 5th graders showed progress in reading at twice the usual rate. After 20 months, the gains had not only continued but had spread to other language skills. It is well-documented that what is read is reflected in the syntactic structure and style of what children write; and that it can improve writing more than formal grammar instruction. [15] [16]

Factors which influence ease of comprehension of a book by a reader go beyond vocabulary, idioms, and syntax (the primary criteria for the books selected here). References to things the reader is unacquainted with (including culturally-specific ones), the presence of figurative language, and switching between narrative and expository style make comprehension more difficult. [17] [18] Patterned language (repetition) and predictability of structure make it easier for beginning readers.

Discussion and Conclusion
To some people, stories read "just for fun" might seem like a waste of time. However, even in simple step-one stories, the amount of language provides an impressive amount of English practice. Take Po-po, for instance (Oxford Start With English Readers). When you look at individual pages, with an average of only around 11 words per page, it seems like very little language. But the 355-word text typed-out would occupy a block about seven cm long (single-spaced, 12-point type) on a page 17 cm wide. This simple book has 64 head-words, including 11 verbs, 25 nouns (not including proper names), and seven adjectives and adverbs. The amount of repetition far exceeds what a student would tolerate in a normal class lesson. For example, the word "is" and variants (is not, isn't) occurs 61 times, "look" and variants 27 times, "his" 24 times, "it" 19 times, "at" 18 times, "this" 8 times, and so on. In other words, the amount of English practice is quite significant; and it is practice that encourages "thinking in English."

In countries whose native language is not English, using story books in the classroom could be a way to greatly increase the exposure of children to English during that early critical period before the age of 12, when they acquire language so easily. Storybooks could be used even by teachers with limited English, because they can use the tapes that come with a book.

A big point in favor of storybooks is their vocabulary. Hever [19] reports on a study by M. Ljung at Stockholm University comparing the vocabulary of texts intended for Swedish high schools with the general frequency of words in English (using a corpus compiled at the University of Birmingham). He reports that in the TEFL texts many words are under-represented; and that the under-represented words are, in general, frequently used words. That is, they are common in newspapers, magazines, and TV broadcasts and discussions. Story book dialogue and vocabulary often is very close to what is used in ordinary conversation. Therefore they are quite relevant to programs wishing to produce students who use English for oral communication.

What about using storybooks in the classroom, especially with large classes? For various reasons, it is impossible in a large class to have each child heard as he or she reads, and to correct individually. I think the solution might be tapes, and choral reading. First, have students repeat line-by-line after a tape. Then, read the whole passage again, out loud. After every few pages have the children do comprehension and review activities that are also fun and interesting. Look for the books that have these activities included ­ there are some.

Cost could be a consideration. The readers we used are relatively expensive compared to regular texts. Three small beginning books cost more than one textbook of the kind usually used in schools, and would provide only a few hours of reading and talking at most, while the text would last for a semester. It might be feasible, however, for schools to own sets of readers which would be "borrowed" by a teacher for use in a class for a period of time. Many schools in the United States do this. Each copy in the set bears a permanent number. The teacher keeps a record of whom each copy is issued to. The books currently being used could be kept on a shelf in the classroom. Every child would know which is "his/her" book, and get it off of the shelf every day, returning it there before leaving. Every child could have a given number for the duration of the term, and this would eliminate the problem of book-issuing for every new book read by the class. Each child would use the copy with his or her number for every book the class read.

I have provided the list of what I used because it can be challenging and very time-consuming to establish a sequence of graded readings, unless you buy all of one publisher's series. This, of course, suits the publishers, but might not suit the individual or school planning the program. What would really be helpful is to establish standard vocabulary corpora of increasing levels of difficulty, like the ones Oxford has done. There has been one attempt to review and to classify a large number of graded readers according to one scale [20] , although the scale's criteria are not included in the review articles.

The English-only graded-series readers I have seen are being produced by publishers in English-speaking countries. There are a several series of readers produced by Korean publishers ( reprinted English stories ), and they are much cheaper than the foreign-produced textbooks. I' m sure the same is the case in many other countries. However, these series are not usable in the way I have described for beginning readers. There are not enough books of the same level, they are too long, they are not supplemented with pictures, and the introduction of new words and phrases is not gradual. True, notes are provided in Korean on every page for every word or phrase that might cause a problem; but this format isn't desirable because it throws the student back into translation mode.
Footnotes

* [1] A "headword" includes all the basic variations on a word. For example the entry "able" would include able, ability, abler, ablest, ably, and unable.. "accept" would include accept, acceptability, acceptable, acceptance, accepted, accepting, and accepts.
* [2] Books Used by Bo-kyung and Chang-jun (approximately in order)
* [3] Disclaimer: I have no connection, whatsoever, with Oxford press or any of its employees. I apologize to other book publishers, but the fact is that I did happen to choose Oxford books after looking over quite a few books. There are, however, plenty of excellent books on the market by other publishers.
* [4] Even two pages of this amount of text would have seemed extremely daunting to the middle-school students mentioned at the beginning of the paper.
* [5] Krashen,S.D. and Terrell, T. 1982 The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition In the Classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press
* [6] Hill, D.R. 2001. Graded readers. ELT Journal, 55(3):300-324
* [7] Krashen,S.D. 1986. We acquire vocabulary by reading. In: A.Papalia (ed), Teaching Our Students a Second Language in the Proficiency-based Classroom:533-. Schenectady, NY: New York State Association of Foreign Language Teachers
* [8] Twadell,F. 1973. Vocabulary expansion in the TESOL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 7(1):61-78.
* [9] Day,R. and Bamford,J. 1998. Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
* [10] Hill, 2001 (Ibid)
* [11] Seal,B.D. 199l. Vocabulary learning and teaching. In: Celce-Murica, M.(ed), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language: 396-331. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
* [12] Cohen,D.1968. The effect of literature on vocabulary and reading achievement. Elementary English, 45: 209-213.
* [13] Nagy,W.E., Herman,P.A. and Anderson,R.C. 1985. Learning words in context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20:233-253.
* [14] Elley,W.B. and Mangubhai,R. 1983.The impact of reading on second language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19:53-67.
* [15] Eckoff,B. 1983. How reading affects children's writing. Language Arts : 60:607-626.
* [16] Carson,J.E. 1990. Reading-writing connections: toward a description for second-language learners. In: Kroll,B.(ed), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom: 88-101. New York: Cambridge University Press.
* [17] Allen, V.G. 1994. Selecting materials for the reading instruction of ESL children. In: Spangenberg-Urbschat, K. and Pritchard, R. (eds), Kids Come in All Languages: Reading Instruction for ESL Students:109-131. International Reading Association, Inc. (has web site)
* [18] Williams, L. 1998. Young EFL Readers and Their Books. Abo, Finland: Abo Academi University Press.
* [19] Hever, Boo 2001. Testing Vocabulary
Now offline:www.forumeducation.net/servlet/vi/mat , 9/15/01
* [20] The latest of which is Hill, 2001 (ibid). Part of the Edinburgh Project on Extensive Reading (EPER) through Edinburgh University— (they have a web site).

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Extensive Reading: Why? and How? by :Timothy Bell

Abstract

An extensive reading program was established for elementary level language learners at the British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen. Research evidence for the use of such programs in EFL/ESL contexts is presented, emphasizing the benefits of this type of input for students' English language learning and skills development. Practical advice is then offered to teachers worldwide on ways to encourage learners to engage in a focused and motivating reading program with the potential to lead students along a path to independence and resourcefulness in their reading and language learning.

Introduction: The Reading Program
An extensive reading program was established at the British Council Language Center in Sanaa, Yemen. An elementary level class of government employees (age range 17-42) was exposed to a regime of graded readers, which was integrated into normal classroom teaching. Students followed a class reader, had access to a class library of graded readers, and had classes in the British Council library, which gave them access to a collection of 2000 titles. Questionnaires were used to examine students' reading interests, habits and attitudes, both prior to, and following the program. The class library contained 141 titles in the published readers of some major publishers (see inventory of titles in Bell, 1994). Familiar titles (e.g. popular Arab folk tales) were selected for both the class readers and the class library, so as to motivate the students to read. These titles proved very popular, as did the practice of reading aloud to the class.

Students' reading was carefully monitored; formal and informal records being kept both by the researcher, and by the students themselves. Reading diaries and book reports were used, together with a card file system to document the program and record both the titles read and students' written comments on the books. A wall chart acted as a focal point for in-class reading, discussion and exchange of titles. Reader interviews were conducted throughout the program, which ran for a period of six months over the course of two semesters. Students became actively involved in running the class library; tables were arranged and titles displayed attractively during the periods set aside for the reading program. Students were taken into the main British Council library for one lesson a week, during which they participated in controlled twenty-minute sessions of USSR 1 (cf. Davis, 1995).

With reference to research evidence, we now turn to the role of extensive reading programs in fostering learners' progress in reading development and improvement.

The Role of Extensive Reading in Language Learning

1. It can provide 'comprehensible input'
In his 1982 book, Krashen argues that extensive reading will lead to language acquisition, provided that certain preconditions are met. These include adequate exposure to the language, interesting material, and a relaxed, tension-free learning environment. Elley and Manghubai (1983:55) warn that exposure to the second language is normally "planned, restricted, gradual and largely artificial." The reading program provided in Yemen, and the choice of graded readers in particular, was intended to offer conditions in keeping with Krashen's model.

2. It can enhance learners' general language competence
Grabe (1991:391) and Paran (1996:30) have emphasized the importance of extensive reading in providing learners with practice in automaticity of word recognition and decoding the symbols on the printed page (often called bottom-up processing). The book flood project in Fiji (Elley & Manghubai: op cit.), in which Fijian school children were provided with high-interest storybooks, revealed significant post treatment gains in word recognition and reading comprehension after the first year, and wider gains in oral and written skills after two years.

3. It increases the students' exposure to the language
The quality of exposure to language that learners receive is seen as important to their potential to acquire new forms from the input. Elley views provision of large quantities of reading material to children as fundamental to reducing the 'exposure gap' between L1 learners and L2 learners. He reviews a number of studies with children between six and twelve years of age, in which subjects showed rapid growth in language development compared with learners in regular language programs . There was a "spread of effect from reading competence to other language skills - writing, speaking and control over syntax," (Elley 1991:404).

4. It can increase knowledge of vocabulary
Nagy & Herman (1987) claimed that children between grades three and twelve (US grade levels) learn up to 3000 words a year. It is thought that only a small percentage of such learning is due to direct vocabulary instruction, the remainder being due to acquisition of words from reading. This suggests that traditional approaches to the teaching of vocabulary, in which the number of new words taught in each class was carefully controlled (words often being presented in related sets), is much less effective in promoting vocabulary growth than simply getting students to spend time on silent reading of interesting books.

5. It can lead to improvement in writing
Stotsky (1983) and Krashen (1984) reviewed a number of L1 studies that appear to show the positive effect of reading on subjects' writing skills, indicating that students who are prolific readers in their pre-college years become better writers when they enter college. L2 studies by Hafiz & Tudor (1989) in the UK and Pakistan, and Robb & Susser (1989) in Japan, revealed more significant improvement in subjects' written work than in other language skills. These results again support the case for an input-based, acquisition-oriented reading program based on extensive reading as an effective means of fostering improvements in students writing.

6. It can motivate learners to read
Reading material selected for extensive reading programs should address students' needs, tastes and interests, so as to energize and motivate them to read the books. In the Yemen, this was achieved through the use of familiar material and popular titles reflecting the local culture (e.g.. Aladdin and His Lamp). Bell & Campbell (1996, 1997) explore the issue in a South East Asian context, presenting various ways to motivate learners to read and explaining the role of extensive reading and regular use of libraries in advancing the reading habit .

7. It can consolidate previously learned language
Extensive reading of high-interest material for both children and adults offers the potential for reinforcing and recombining language learned in the classroom. Graded readers have a controlled grammatical and lexical load, and provide regular and sufficient repetition of new language forms (Wodinsky & Nation 1988).Therefore, students automatically receive the necessary reinforcement and recycling of language required to ensure that new input is retained and made available for spoken and written production.

8. It helps to build confidence with extended texts
Much classroom reading work has traditionally focused on the exploitation of shorts texts, either for presenting lexical and grammatical points or for providing students with limited practice in various reading skills and strategies. However, a large number of students in the EFL/ESL world require reading for academic purposes, and therefore need training in study skills and strategies for reading longer texts and books. Kembo (1993) points to the value of extensive reading in developing students confidence and ability in facing these longer texts.

9. It encourages the exploitation of textual redundancy
Insights from cognitive psychology have informed our understanding of the way the brain functions in reading. It is now generally understood that slow, word-by-word reading, which is common in classrooms, impedes comprehension by transferring an excess of visual signals to the brain. This leads to overload because only a fraction of these signals need to be processed for the reader to successfully interpret the message. Kalb (1986) refers to redundancy as an important means of processing, and to extensive reading as the means of recognizing and dealing with redundant elements in texts.

10. It facilitates the development of prediction skills
One of the currently accepted perspectives on the reading process is that it involves the exploitation of background knowledge. Such knowledge is seen as providing a platform for readers to predict the content of a text on the basis of a pre-existing schema. When students read, these schema are activated and help the reader to decode and interpret the message beyond the printed words. These processes presuppose that readers predict, sample, hypothesize and reorganize their understanding of the message as it unfolds while reading (Nunan 1991: 65-66).

Practical Advice on Running Extensive Reading Programs

1. Maximize Learner Involvement
A number of logistical hurdles have to be overcome in order to make an extensive reading program effective. Books need to be transported, displayed and collected at the end of each reading session. Considerable paperwork is required to document the card file system, reading records, inventories, book reports and in maintaining and updating lists of titles. Students should therefore be encouraged to take an active role in the management and administration of the reading program. In the Yemen program, students gained a strong sense of ownership through running the reading resources in an efficient, coordinated and organized manner.

2. The Reader Interview
Regular conferencing between teacher and student played a key role in motivating students in the Yemen to read the books. This enabled effective monitoring of individual progress and provided opportunities for the teacher to encourage students to read widely, show interest in the books being read, and to guide students in their choice of titles. By demonstrating commitment in their own reading, teachers can foster positive attitudes to reading, in which it is no longer viewed as tedious, demanding, hard work, but as a pleasurable part of their learning.

3. Read Aloud to the Class
In the Yemen study, reader interviews conducted with students revealed the popularity of occasions when the teacher read aloud to the class. The model of pronunciation provided acted as a great motivator, encouraging many students to participate in classroom reading. Students gained confidence in silent reading because they were able to verbalize sounds they previously could could not recognize. This resulted in wider reading by some of the weaker readers in the class. Often thought of as bad practice, reading aloud should play a full part in motivating the emerging reader to overcome the fear of decoding words in an unfamiliar script.

4. Student Presentations
Short presentations on books read played an absolutely crucial role in the program and students frequently commented on the value of oral work in class for exchanging information about the books. The reader interviews revealed that most of the book choices made by students resulted from recommendations made by friends and not by the teacher. This demonstrates that given the right preparation, encouragement, sense of ownership and belonging, an extensive reading program will achieve a direction and momentum governed by the learners themselves; a large step in the promotion of student independence and autonomy.

5. Written Work Based on the Reading
Effective reading will lead to the shaping of the reader's thoughts, which naturally leads many learners to respond in writing with varying degrees of fluency. Elementary level students can be asked simply to write short phrases expressing what they most enjoyed about a book they read, or to record questions they wish to ask the teacher or other students in class. With intermediate students, book reports may be used, with sections for questions, new vocabulary, and for recording the main characters and events. At this level, summary writing is also a valuable practice because it allows learners to assert full control, both of the main factual or fictional content of a book, and of the grammar and vocabulary used to express it. Advanced students can be asked to write compositions, which, by definition, are linguistically more demanding written responses to the reading material.

6. Use Audio Material in the Reading Program
The use of audio recordings of books read aloud and of graded readers on cassette proved very popular with the students in Yemen, and is advocated for wide application. Listening material provided the learners with a model of correct pronunciation which aided word recognition, and exposed students to different accents, speech rhythms and cadences. Student confidence in their ability to produce natural speech patterns and to read along with the voice of a recorded speaker is central to maintaining their motivation to master the language as a medium for talking about their reading.

7. Avoid the Use of Tests
Extensive reading programs should be "without the pressures of testing or marks" (Davis 1995:329). The use of tests runs contrary to the objective of creating stress-free conditions for pleasure reading because it invokes images of rote learning, vocabulary lists, memorization and homework. Extensive reading done at home should be under the learner's control and not an obligation imposed by the teacher. By their very nature, tests impose a rigor on the learning process, which the average student will never equate with pleasure.

8. Discourage the Over-Use of Dictionaries
While dictionaries certainly have a place in the teaching of reading, it is probably best located in intensive reading lessons, where detailed study of the lexical content of texts is appropriate. If learners turn to the dictionary every time they come across an unfamiliar word, they will focus only on the language itself, and not on the message conveyed. This habit will result in slow, inefficient reading and destroy the pleasure that reading novels and other literature are intended to provide. Summarizing comments on the extensive reading done by his subjects, Pickard (1996:155) notes that "Use of the dictionary was sparing, with the main focus on meaning".

9. Monitor the Students' Reading
In order to run an extensive reading program successfully, effective monitoring is required, both to administer the resources efficiently, and to trace students' developing reading habits and interests. In the Yemen program, a card file system was used to record titles and the dates the books were borrowed and returned. Input from the monitoring process helps us to record students' progress, maintain and update an inventory of titles, and locate and select new titles for the class library. It therefore serves both the individual needs of the reader and the logistical task of managing the reading resources.

10. Maintain the Entertainment
This is perhaps the most important aspect of the program to emphasize. Teachers need to invest time and energy in entertaining the participants by making use of multimedia sources to promote the books (e.g. video, audio, CD ROM, film, etc.). They should also exploit the power of anecdote by telling the students about interesting titles, taking them out to see plays based on books, exploiting posters, leaflets, library resources, and even inviting visiting speakers to give a talk in class on a book they have read recently. In these ways, teachers can maintain student motivation to read and secure their full engagement in the enjoyment the program provides.

Conclusion
Tsang's (1996) study, carried out in Hong Kong secondary schools, provided further persuasive evidence of the effectiveness of extensive reading in fostering learners' language development. He found that "the reading program was significantly more effective than the writing program" (1996:225) . Extensive reading programs can provide very effective platforms for promoting reading improvement and development from elementary levels upwards. Although they do require a significant investment in time, energy and resources on the part of those charged with managing the materials, the benefits in terms of language and skills development for the participating learners far outweigh the modest sacrifices required. If such programs receive institutional support and can be integrated into the curriculum so that they become agreed school policy, as suggested in Davis (1995), they will likely be more readily and widely adopted, particularly in countries where material and financial resources are adequate.
Notes
1. USSR is uninterrupted sustained silent reading.

References

• Bell, T. (1994). '"Intensive" versus "Extensive" Reading: A Study of the Use of Graded Readers as Supplementary Input Material to Traditional "Intensive" Reading Techniques.' Unpublished MA TEFL Dissertation. University of Reading.
• Bell, T., & Campbell, J. (1996). 'Promoting Good Reading Habits: The Debate.' Network 2/3 (pp 22-30).
• Bell, T., & Campbell, J. (1997). 'Promoting Good Reading Habits Part 2: The Role of Libraries.' Network 2/4 (pp 26-35).
• Davis, C. (1995). 'Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance?' English Language Teaching Journal 49/4 (pp 329-336).
• Elley, W. B. (1991). 'Acquiring literacy in a second language: The effect of book-based programs.' Language Learning 41/3: 375-411.
• Elley, W. B., & Manghubai, F. (1983). 'The effect of reading on second language learning.' Reading Research Quarterly, 19/1, (pp 53-67).
• Grabe, W. (1991). 'Current developments in second language reading research.' TESOL Quarterly 25/3: 375-406.
• Hafiz, F. M., & Tudor, I. (1989). 'Extensive reading and the development of language skills.' English Language Teaching Journal, 43, (pp 4-13).
• Kalb, G. (1986). 'Teaching of extensive reading in English instruction at the senior gymnasium level.' Die Neueren Sprachen, 85, (pp 420-430).
• Kembo, J. (1993). 'Reading:Encouraging and Maintaining Individual Extensive Reading.' English Teaching Forum, 31/2, (pp 36-38).
• Krashen, S. D. (1982). 'Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.' New York: Prentice Hall.
• Krashen, S. D. (1984). 'Writing: Research, Theory and Applications.' New York: Prentice Hall.
• Nagy, W., & Herman, P. (1987). 'Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction.' In Mckeown, M., & Curtis, M. (eds), The nature of vocabulary acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (pp 19-35).
• Nunan, D. (1991). 'Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook For Teachers.' London: Prentice Hall.
• Paran, A. (1996). 'Reading in EFL: facts and fictions.' English Language Teaching Journal, 50/1, (pp 25-34).
• Pickard, N. (1996). 'Out-of-class language learning strategies.' English Language Teaching Journal, 50/2, (pp 151-159).
• Robb, T. N., & Susser, B. (1989). 'Extensive Reading vs Skills Building in an EFL context.' Reading in a Foreign Language, 5/2, (pp 239-249).
• Stotsky, S. (1983). 'Research on reading/writing relationships: A synthesis and suggested directions.' Language Arts, 60, (pp 627-642).
• Tsang, Wai-King. (1996). 'Comparing the Effects of Reading and Writing on Writing Performance.' Applied Linguistics 17/2, (pp 210-223).
• Wodinsky, M., & Nation, P. (1988). 'Learning from graded readers.' Reading in a Foreign Language 5: (pp 155-161).

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Technical Correspondence: What Professionals Need to Learn by :Ted Knoy

Abstract
This article introduces common types of correspondence written by non-native English speaking technology professionals by examining the technical correspondence of fifty-two Chinese technology professionals over a one year period. Based on those observations, five common types of technical correspondence are identified. Examples of each type are provided as well.

Introduction
Correspondence, perhaps the most commonly used medium in technical writing, is often viewed as a mundane administrative task. However, for the non-native English speaking technology professional, correspondence provides an opportunity to promote laboratory activities within a technical organization. Successful articulation also means greater access to similar organizations abroad. Nevertheless, when writing in the workplace, technology professionals are often forced to rely on business correspondence materials owing to the lack of a more suitable reference. This article examines the technical correspondence of fifty-two Chinese technology professionals at the Industrial Technology Research Institute (Hsinchu, Taiwan) over a one year period. Based on those observations, five common types of technical correspondence are identified: technical cooperation, technical visits abroad, technical visits from abroad, technical training, and requesting information.

Five Common Types of Technical Correspondence
The technical correspondence of fifty-two Chinese technology professionals at the Industrial Technology Research Institute (Hsinchu, Taiwan) was collected and analyzed over a one year period. Their correspondence was categorized into the following five categories:
1. Technical Cooperation
Correspondence involving technical cooperation typically includes exchanging information, seeking technology licensors, paving the way for technology transfers, proposing how to proceed with technical cooperation, requesting participation in/or accreditation by an international body, and reporting the current status of related activities. Common patterns in correspondence related to technical cooperation include the following:

a. Stating the organization's intention of seeking cooperation. Simply stating the organization's desire to form a cooperative relationship with another organization helps avoid future confusion.

Examples are provided below:

"I'd like to propose a technological information exchange between our two organizations regarding environmental pollution prevention-waste minimization."

"We are seeking potential licensors of the Autoclaved Lightweight Concrete (ALC) product technology on behalf of local manufacturers in Taiwan, ROC."

"In addition to our in-house R&D, we are also considering the possibility of technology transfer, from a foreign company, of a technology that is ready for (or close to) commercialization and that is already under patent protection."

"We are currently involved in a gear box development program and are seeking foreign partners who are capable of developing gear boxes or who can engage in a cooperative technical program with automotive manufacturers in the R.O.C."

"We are anxious to develop long-lasting cooperative relationships with manufacturers such as yours."

"We recognize that the continued success of our work depends on our sharing and exchanging experience with similar organizations."

b. Giving background information about the organization (e.g., mission, major activities, and achievements). Providing background information about the organization allows the other party to know whether both parties' interests and expertise are compatible.

Examples are provided below:

"Our organization, Mechanical Industry Research Laboratories (MIRL), is a subsidiary of the Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) established by the government of the Republic of China (ROC)."

"One of our missions is to aid the local industrial sector by upgrading technology levels. One of our strategies is to license technology from abroad."

"The experimental results generated so far in this project have already been most helpful in Taiwan's environmental protection work."

c. Providing suggestions on how to initiate cooperation.

Examples are provided below:

"I am looking forward to hearing your ideas or suggestions regarding this information exchange opportunity. I would also like to arrange for a ten-day technical visit to your organization this upcoming May as the initial step of our cooperation."

"If you are interested in licensing this technology, please send the above mentioned information to the above address for evaluation."

"Further discussion, or a possible visit by members of ITRI to your production facility, would seem to be the appropriate next step."

"I suggest that ABC Corporation send a technical expert to UCL before the end of July and give a presentation, regarding the product development of this technology, to our scientists and technical staff."

"Please let me know if there are any areas of common interest you would like to discuss."

d. Commending the achievements and reputation of an organization. Sincerely acknowledging or commending the other party's success in a particular technology expresses the organization's intention to contribute toward as well as learn from the collaborative relationship.

Examples are provided below:

"Your corporation has a long tradition of providing outstanding engineering TP (e.g., Noryl) that has various properties and excellent quality."

"ABC Corporation is recognized as the global leader in developing, producing, and marketing transdermal drug delivery system."

"ABC's Biotechnology Group has developed some interesting products that we would like to understand in more detail before reaching the licensing stage."

"Stat-Rite 2300 is an excellent anti-static polymer that blends well with other thermoplastics and can be used in ESD applications. We believe that this permanent anti-static plastic has a strong market potential, especially in light of the emerging electronics industry in Taiwan."

e. Describing the reason(s) for technical cooperation. More than merely attempting to describe the organization's intentions, the writer should outline specific plans or describe what has been achieved so far.

Examples are provided below:

"A new facility is to be established in Taiwan to design, develop and produce auto transmission parts. Therefore, we are seeking partners for technical cooperation through licensing and joint venture agreements."

"We are currently involved in a gear box development program and are seeking foreign partners who are capable of developing gear boxes or who can engage in a cooperative technical program with automotive manufacturers in the R.O.C."

2. Technical Visits Abroad
Correspondence involving technical visits overseas typically includes proposals for technical visits, topics of discussion, confirmation reminders, changing dates or itineraries, hotel accommodations and transportation, expressing appreciation for hospitality during stay, accepting invitations, and declining invitations. Common patterns in correspondence related to technical visits overseas include the following:

a. Proposing the visit and outlining preliminary details. A technical visit should be viewed as a way of satisfying an organization's need (e.g., information exchange, short training courses, or general understanding of their operations). Details such as time and discussion topics should also be included.

Examples are provided below:

"It would be much appreciated if you could arrange for me to observe your production line during my stay at ABC on March 19, 1993."

"I would like to visit the Special Carbon Division (or the Technical Center) of ABC Corporation/Massachusetts during the upcoming trip."

"Professor Liu from the Virginia Institute of Technology recommended that we visit your renowned institute and find a time to discuss our needs with you, as well as to learn of your own related experiences."

"We recognize that ensuring continued success of this program depends on our observing and understanding similar work in other countries. At this stage, I would like to arrange for a visit to your country."

"I am keenly interested in visiting Dr. Jones and his staff to learn of all the operational aspects involved with this program."

b. Explaining the purpose of the visit. A direct statement of what the writer expects during the technical visit may prevent confusion about what the other party is able or willing to provide.

Examples are provided below:

"We need to enhance our knowledge of carbon black in terms of the chemistry, characterization, and processing application (e.g., ESD protection, wire and cable, coating and UV protection). Such knowledge would also benefit our customers, many of whom are manufacturers."

"Purpose: to understand and evaluate successful cases and the current status of the Japanese dye industry with respect to technology, equipment, and information on industrial waste minimization."

"Visits to compressor system companies that manufacture systems for heat pump or vapor recompression would be equally beneficial. Information regarding the variety of available heat pump systems would also be quite useful for future promotion of such systems in Taiwan."

c. Commending the organization's achievements. Complementing another organization on its achievements is not only good public relations. It also gives the organization a clearer idea of what your expectations will be when and if you pay a visit to their facilities.

Examples are provided below:

"Waste minimization is a global trend, and your country already has much experience in this area."

"As well known, ABC Corporation has the resources needed to produce good quality diverse carbon blacks."

d. Emphasizing the cooperative nature of the visit. The technical visit should be described in terms of a specific perspective. It is not only your organization that stands to benefit. A technical visit can also clarify the common interests and capabilities of both organizations. This may pave the way for future collaborative activities. The following

Examples are provided:

"I hope this visit will strengthen the ties of cooperation that bind our organizations."

"In light of these concerns, we are looking forward to collaborating with your organization in the near future."

"We hope this visit will open doors for further cooperation between our two organizations."

3. Technical Visits from Abroad
Correspondence involving technical visits from abroad typically includes inviting speakers, inviting a consultant or guest worker, setting agendas for technical visits, letters of approval-technical visits, financial arrangements, hotel accommodations or travel arrangements, and changing the dates of technical visits. Common patterns in correspondence related to technical visits from abroad include the following:

a. Inviting the speaker. Speaker invitations should include preliminary information on the role that the participant will play and the topics covered at the event.

Examples are provided below:

"In light of your renowned research and your contributions in the field of GRIN polymers, we would like to formally invite you to serve as the Invited Speaker at the upcoming GRIN Materials Symposium."

"We would like to invite you to give a talk at our upcoming silicone technology seminar."

"This is an official invitation to three ABC Corporation specialists, Mr. Smith, Mr. Jones, and Ms. Lin, to participate in a CGMP seminar and visit our local bulk pharmaceutical chemical plants."

"Please recommend one scientific expert to serve as a short term consultant at CMS, whose expertise is highly relevant to the following subjects."

b. Providing details of the event. The letter should include specific topics, time of the event, and perhaps a description of some of the participants who will attend this event.

Examples are provided below:

"We are organizing a seminar on Conductive Plastics for Anti-static/ESD Applications that will be held at Union Chemical Laboratories/ITRI on April 16. The ultimate purpose of the seminar will be to provide a channel of communication between IC assembly houses and IC container manufacturers. The seminar will also focus on issues related to the properties and technology of conductive plastic compounds."

"The meeting will be held on April 25-26, 1994 at the National Central Library, Taipei. We hope that you can give two lectures, at 31:20-14:05 and 15:10-15:55 (4/25/94), respectively."

"Reception dinners are to be held on the evenings of April 25 and 26, and there will be a short tour of Taipei on April 29."

c. Compensating for the visit. Financial details regarding compensation should be stated as simply and directly as possible to avoid confusion.

Examples are provided below:

"Round-trip airfare ticket (business class) and accommodations will be provided."

"Please pay in advance for the round-trip airfare ticket, and other incidental expenses; retain the receipts as well. We will reimburse you (by check) prior to your departure of Taiwan."

d. Making preparations before the visit. The speaker should not be given any last minute surprises with respect to what materials and future information is required.

Examples are provided below:

"Please fax us your curriculum vitae, lecture topics, and half-page abstracts before January 31, 1994, as well as the complete papers before March 1, 1994. Please fax and send all our materials to me on time so that we will have sufficient time for translation and printing."

"I also need your curriculum vitae, including name, date of birth, place of birth, nationality, marital status, academic qualifications, professional experience, scientific achievements, current scientific activiites, other science-related activities, and selected publications."

4. Technical Training
While technical visits overseas (point #2 above) may only last a couple weeks, the correspondence for technical training is more detailed since the length of stay may be up to one year. Correspondence involving technical training typically includes invitations to speakers, guest worker applications, application cover letters, suggestion letters for training content, training course confirmations, arranging accommodations, application rejection acknowledgements, and appreciation letters upon return from training program. Common patterns in correspondence related to technical training include the following:

a. Proposing the training course of guest worker period. Proposing the technical
training period should be stated with confidence in the organization's ability to meet the organizational or individual needs.

Examples are provided below:

"Could you provide a short training course on the current developments and applications of MS in polymer research."

"Would you allow me to serve as a guest worker in your laboratory?"

"I would like to serve as a guest worker in your laboratory for six to eight months."

b. Describing the applicant's current work and researh interests (as related to
the training program). Providing as much information about the applicant's individual background or organizational requirements or needs will allow the reader to determine whether he or she can be of assistance.

Examples are provided below:

"I have a masters degree in Materials Science and Engineering and have received special training in thin film deposition photolithography and chemical etching. I am currently designig a process that would integrate these technologies for the development of a pressure sensor that is based on a metal thin strain gauge."

"The Pressure/Vacuum Measurement Laboratory at the Center for Measurement Standards is planning to develop the primary pressure standard (PPS) of the mercury manometer so as to promote and strengthen our laboratory's measurement capabilities."

c. Clearly stating how the training course can benefit the applicant's
organization. A clear statement of what the applicant expects to gain from the training course will avoid further confusion.

Examples are provided below:

"I also agree that the introduction of Molecular Simulation at UCL would provide a more thorough understanding of the polymer morphology-structure property relationship and the directions for research activity."

"You laboratory, one of the leaders in this field of research, could provide me with a marvelous opportunity to learn about sensor manufacturing."

d. Setting an itinerary or set of topics that will be covered during the training program. Stating the applicant's expectations of the training itinerary may prevent later disappointment.

Examples are provided below:

"I hope that through this short training program we can determine the systems and research topics that need to be focused on. The following topics may be a helpful guide for you when deciding the contents of this short training course. Of course, you should feel free to ammend or expan on any of these topics."

"We hope to enhance our technical knowledge of PPS, particularly with respect to temperature measurement and control, anti-vibration, and pressure control."

5. Requesting Information
Correspondence involving information requests typically includes requesting program information, requesting company information, requesting product information, requesting technology information, requesting reference materials and price quotations - information services. Common patterns in correspondence related to requesting information technical training include the following:

a. Stating the organization's interest in the requested information. Requests for information should not be viewed as merely a means to obtain information. Instead, information requests should be considered as the first step in identifying the mutual interests of both organizations. For instance, how will the other organization benefit from supplying this information?

Examples are provided below:

"We intend to explore other possible applications of these films, particularly in the IC, electronics and packaging industries here in Taiwan."

"We plan to file an IND for scopolamine T.D.D.S. with the Bureau of Drugs (Taiwan's counterpart of the FDA). Please provide us with the following documents and samples required by the Bureau."

"Our laboratory is currently developing a flow measurement test rig. Our design consultant suggests the use of ABC valve products on some of the mechanical components. The following is a list of items we are interested in purchasing from your company."

b. Requesting information. By clarifying your organization's interests, you allow
the reader to make a correlation between the interests and goals of both organizations.

Examples are provided below:

"Please send me introductory information as well as other relevant publications that explain your strategies, methodologies, achievements, and future objectives."

"Since our goal closely resembles that of your organization, we would like to develop a partner relationship with your Industrial Material Exchange Service and, in this way, facilitate information exchange and other possible collaborations.

Conclusion
This article has identified five common types of correspondence written by non-native English speaking technology professionals. As a preferred alternative to business correspondence materials that often do not match the writer's requirements, the common types of technical correspondence introduced here allow technology professionals to articulate their goals of promoting laboratory activities and creating collaborative ties with their counterparts abroad.

References

* Knoy, Ted (1995). A Correspondence Manual for Chinese Technical Writers Hsinchu, Taiwan Industrial Technology Research Institute
* Knoy, Ted (2000, February). Overcoming Chinese Colloquial Habits in Writing. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 2

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Content Based Academic Writing by :Birsen Tan Tütünis

This paper presents the second part of the "Writing Course Project" designed and implemented at the Trakya University E.L.T. Department. The main aim of the project is to design a two-year (Preparatory and Freshman) writing course syllabus based on the students' perceived academic needs. The theoretical assumption which emphasises a combination of product and process oriented approaches are taken into consideration for both courses.

The Background and the Objectives

The objectives are determined to be as follows:

* to find out students' linguistic and academic needs, their writing habits and learning strategies,
* to produce materials applicable to the design of writing courses in ELT departments,
* to suggest procedures for testing and evaluation.

In line with the first objective, the students' linguistic and academic needs are determined; Firstly, when the preparatory year students' needs are inquired, it is seen that they need to be trained according to the requirements of C.A.E. Writing Test. Because in the preparatory year they are trained in basic language skills and grammar, involving five hours of writing instruction per week. At the end of the year, they take a proficiency test at the level of C.A.E. Test. Therefore, for needs analysis, the task types of C.A.E. writing test are examined. It is decided that a Task-based approach to writing would facilitate the achievement of our goal for the first year. Because a task-based syllabus is assumed to enable our students to work in a learner centred environment where they can monitor their own learning and keep an eye on their progress in L 2 as a whole.

Therefore the issues to be stressed in the first year's syllabus are agreed to be:

* learner centeredness
* development of lexis and syntax
* development of writing skills

During the second year (freshman year), which is our main concern in this article, the students follow typical freshman courses in foreign language teaching departments, involving three hours of writing instruction per week. The freshman year's writing course is based on the preparatory year's course.

For needs analysis, when the requirements of the ELT Department are examined, it is seen that;

Exam questions require essay type writing which demand knowledge demonstration and, Academic courses require academic skills like; note-taking, recalling, sorting, synthesizing, organizing, interpreting and applying information .

Thus, it is decided that a content-based approach to writing would be beneficial for the students. In a content-based approach, writing is required as a mode of demonstrating knowledge and as a mode of prompting independent thinking, researching and learning. Students learn to gather and interpret data according to methods and standards accepted in their fields, to bring an increasing body of knowledge to bear on their interpreting, and to write in specialised formats. Shih describes the characteristics of content-based approaches to academic writing as follows:

Writing tasks which follow from, and are integrated with the listening and reading of academic material is the defining characteristic of content-based approaches to academic writing.
May Shih,1986 TESOL QUARTERLY

In a content-based approach; the emphasis is on writing from sources (readings, lectures, discussions), on synthesis and interpretation of information to be studied in depth. The focus is on what is said rather than how it is said. The skills are integrated as in a university course. Extended study of a topic precedes writing so that there is active control of ideas and extensive processing of new information.

Therefore, the following needed to be stressed in the syllabus:

* raising awareness on the audience
* raising awareness on coherence
* raising awareness on the importance of reading
* developing academic writing skills (outlining, summarising, reporting and arguing, paraphrasing and synthesizing)

The writing course is also seen as an opportunity to provide basic theoretical information related to writing. Therefore, reading input is deliberately chosen from the academic articles written by the professionals in the field.

Thus, the objectives of providing particular type of reading input can be listed as such:

* supplying the necessary materials for the students to build up their schemata in order to write better essays
* giving the students some theoretical knowledge about writing from which they will later on benefit
* limiting the topics provided through the reading input to what is relevant to their interests, rather than presenting them to general topics found in every writing book in the market
* facilitating their lexical and syntactic development providing typical and authentic samples of the genre they are dealing with as models
* raising their awareness on the issues such as the differences between written and spoken language, importance of reading for efficient writing, audience-readership and coherence, etc.


The syllabus is designed to cover the following academic writing skills:

* Reporting: Questionnaire
* Organisation : Making outlines
* Text Analysis
* Reporting : Making diagrams, tables and charts
* Reviewing: Genre analysis
* Synthesising and arguing
* Editing

Implementation and Evaluation

In the particular implementation of the course, certain beneficial strategies such as revision and multiple drafting, critical evaluation on the part of the students are encouraged. Both to encourage the students for these strategies and to test the objectives of the course, the students are given assignments before the instruction and before the reading input; and when the teaching, reading, discussion cycle is completed, the assignments are given back and they are asked to evaluate and revise their own work and sometimes their friends' work, and the differences are noted. The students are frequently given individual feedback.

They also responded to a questionnaire on their conceptions of academic writing, their awareness of the importance of writing for the department, and their preferences and writing strategies. The same questionnaire is developed and given again at the end of the year to check upon the achievements of the objectives of the course. The students are also given a short written exam to measure their theoretical knowledge gains from the reading input.

Results and Discussion

Tests and Assignments
I. The first major evaluation was done on outlining. The mean was 57.14, sd:25. The mean was lower than expected despite the fact that the class reviewed the paragraph and essay structure on an additional session. Therefore, the students were given feedback in the class on the hierarchical order of their outlines.

II. The second group of data comes from the revisions of the essays written before and after the reading input. Significant increases were found on content scores by 24% and in vocabulary by 20%. However, the organisation scores were decreased by 15%, suggesting that the students were not capable of managing the integration of the incoming information into the existing text.

The findings suggest that the reading input effected the students' essays positively, and the students adapted certain characteristics of the articles without any need for explicit instruction. The problem of informal language use in the students' essays for example, was thus eliminated both by exposing the students to texts written on that particular topic and by exposing them to academic articles written in a formal style.

III. The third group of data comes from the several summary scores, such as summaries written before the instruction, under exam condition, as assignments and revision of the summaries written before the instruction. The scores improved in the assignments (73%) as compared to summaries written under exam condition (53%) and remained nearly same in the revisions (72%). However, when the initial summaries (38%) and the final scores are compared (73%), the increase is significant and satisfactory. The students as well, comparing their initial summaries with the later ones acknowledged the increase in their individual performances.

IV. The last group of scores comes from the final assignments in which the students used several different articles to write on a topic in an extended essay. The mean score (65%) was found lower than expected. The students reported that the articles were more difficult than the previous ones and they had not practiced writing such an extended essay before.

The Results from the Questionnaire

The students found four of the 14 texts difficult and hardly accessible. They found all the texts as relevant to the course, but only a few as interesting. However, they admitted that they were informative. 64% of the students thought that reading the materials improved their knowledge about writing, ELT, study skills and their English. They also accepted the idea that a selection of materials from different sources was good if they are not too difficult. However, they thought a text book would be beneficial for reference and revision.

There was a general satisfaction (85 % on the whole) with the lecturer's method, knowledge, clarity and efficiency. They perceived the feedback sufficient but they commented that they benefited more from the individual appointments with the lecturer (74%).

In the third part in which the learning outcomes are considered, the students felt that they had eventually acquired all the skills and they perceived revision as a beneficial strategy to see how much they improved (74%). The students also reported that there was not much variety in the subjects studied, all materials were about similar topics; writing, language, and ELT. Therefore there was little room for creativity.

The third part of the questionnaire reveals certain learner characteristics and the changes in these since the beginning of the year. The majority of our students (84%) still prefer individual work, they learn better from the instructor, a few of them ask for a friend's help, they do not like peer revision although they reported that they found it beneficial to criticise each other's work when done appropriately.

The Last Check of the Objectives

The students were given a short exam at the end of the year in order to measure their theoretical gains from the readings done in the course. The students' performances ranged from 89% to 63% on the readings that they perceived as accessible, on the others they performed between 58% to 42%. It seems that the students had understood some of the texts better than the others depending on their difficulty level.

Suggestions

Our findings from all the above mentioned sources suggest that there are certain aspects of our
syllabus to be retained and some others to be reviewed.

We correctly suggested that reading input would facilitate the acquisition of certain aspects of academic genre leaving no need for explicit instruction. It facilitated their lexical and syntactic development, articles provided models for the students, the issues discussed in the raised their awareness. However, it is clear that the reading input although it should be selected from the relevant genre, it should not be too difficult for the students and require more background knowledge than the students have. The selected articles might be chosen from the field of ELT, but they should relate to the different aspects of the field so that the course would have variety and raise the students' interest while preparing them for their future studies. Although it is quite difficult to make an academic writing course interesting for the students since its requirements are predetermined, the students should find opportunities for self expression and reflect their self interests at least at times. Therefore, the students can be engaged in voluntary project works and can be encouraged for occasional presentations on the topics they chose.

Students should be introduced to strategies such as revision, peer feedback, critical evaluation and group work gradually and the lecturers should show the students the beneficial sides, since our students seem culturally not inclined towards group work and critical evaluation.

It should also be taken into consideration that assignments and exams require different skills on the part of students. The students perform at different levels under two different conditions. Since answering to essay type of questions based on readings in a limited time is a fact of academic life, academic writing courses should involve practices and strategies to develop this skill as well. Mock-exam practices based on reading might be an idea.

Summarising and paraphrasing are difficult skills to acquire for our students since our secondary education does not emphasise them. These should be emphasised sufficiently and lecturers should make sure that their students are able to summarise and paraphrase yet, when the students work on the same skills for too long they loose their motivation. Therefore, a spiral rather than linear course syllabus might be designed to prevent this.

Our students seemed to have benefited from individual conferencing sessions they held with their lecturer. It seems that in such a cognitively and psychologically demanding course as academic writing, the lecturers should provide individual help to their students.

References

* White, R. and Arndt, V. (1991) Process Writing , Longman UK
* Byrne, D. (1988) Teaching Writing Skills, Longman UK
* May Shih(1986 ), Content Based to Teaching Academic Writing, TESOL QUARTERLY, 20, 617-648

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The Internet for English Teaching: Guidelines for Teachers by: Mark Warschauer

Teachers have been using online communication in the language classroom for more than ten years now. From an investigation of the experiences of dozens of teachers around the world who have used the Internet in language teaching (Warschauer, l995a; l995b; 1996c; 1996d), a few common guidelines emerge that can assist teachers in successfully planning and implementing network-based learning projects.

Guidelines
Readers will note that these guidelines are independent of the particular technological tools being used. As has been noted elsewhere, "technology is developing so rapidly that it can often be difficult or even overwhelming to harness, somewhat like trying to get a drink of water from a gushing fire hydrant" (Warschauer, l995b. p. xv). In order to make effective use of new technologies, teachers must thus take a step back and focus on some basic pedagogical requirements. The following guidelines are designed to help teachers implement computer network-based activities into the second language classroom.

#1: Consider Carefully Your Goals
There are several possible reasons for using the Internet in language teaching. One rationale is found in the belief that the linguistic nature of online communication is desirable for promoting language learning. It has been found, for example, that electronic discourse tends to be more lexically and syntactically more complex than oral discourse (Warschauer, 1996a) and features a broad range of linguistic functions beneficial for language learning (Chun, 1994; Kern, 1995; Wang, 1993). Another possible reason for using the Internet is that it creates optimal conditions for learning to write, since it provides an authentic audience for written communication (see, for example Janda, 1995). A third possible reason is that it can increase students' motivation (Warschauer, 1996c). A fourth possible reason is the belief that learning computer skills is essential to students' future success; this reason suggests that it is not only a matter of using the Internet to learn English but also of learning English to be able to function well on the Internet.

None of these reasons are more or less legitimate than any of the others. However, since there are so many ways to integrate the Internet into classroom instruction, it is important for the teacher to clarify his or her goals. If, for example, one of the teacher's goals is to teach students new computer skills, the teacher may want to choose Internet applications which will be most useful to them outside of the classroom, with activities structured so that students steadily gain mastery of more skills. If the immediate goal is to create a certain kind of linguistic environment for students, once again, the teacher should consider what types of language experiences would be beneficial and structure computer activities accordingly. If the goal is to teach writing, Internet activities should be structured so that they steadily bring about an increase in the types of writing processes and relationships essential to becoming a better writer (see, for example, seven activities by Janda in Warschauer, 1995b).

As will be discussed further below, little is usually gained by just adding random online activities into a classroom. Clarifying course goals is, thus, an important first step toward successful use of the Internet.

#2: Think Integration
Most teachers who have used the Internet have started out with some kind of simple key pal (computer pen pal) exchanges. And most teachers who have used these exchanges have felt something lacking. Simply put, there is no more reason to except a significant educational outcome from simply creating a pen pal connection than there is from simply bringing two students into a room and asking them to talk. Over time, greater involvement on the teacher's part in creating learning activities that create sufficient linguistic and cognitive demands on the student is needed to get maximum benefit from Internet exchanges. And, as a number of people have noted, this teacher intervention is most successful when it brings about activities and projects that are well-integrated into the course curriculum as a whole.

Bruce Roberts, the coordinator of the Intercultural E-Mail Classroom Connections (IECC) program, explained this point well:

There is a significant difference in educational outcome depending on whether a teacher chooses to incorporate e-mail classroom connections as (1) an ADD-ON process, like one would include a guest speaker, or (2) an INTEGRATED process, in the way one would include a new textbook. The e-mail classroom connections seems sufficiently complex and time-consuming that if there are goals beyond merely having each student send a letter to a person at a distant school, the ADD-ON approach can lead to frustration and expected academic results‹the necessary time and resources come from other things that also need to be done. On the other hand, when the e-mail classroom connection processes are truly integrated into the ongoing structure of homework and classroom interaction, then the results can be educationally transforming (in Warschauer, 1995a, p. 95)

Of course there are many ways that Internet activities can be integrated into the overall design and goals of a course (see Sayers, 1993 for a good overview). The teacher can work with students to create research questions which are then investigated in collaboration with foreign partners. Students and long-distant partners can work collaboratively on publications. Or students can use exchange partners as experts to supply information on vocabulary, grammar, or cultural points which emerge in the class. Again, the choice has to be made by the classroom teacher, preferably in ongoing consultation with the students. Nevertheless, as Roberts suggests above, it does behoove the teacher to think about how to integrate online connections into the class rather than adding these connections on top of the rest of the classroom activities in a disconnected fashion.

#3: Don't Underestimate the Complexity
Most English teachers, even those who consider themselves computer novices, have several relative advantages when learning to use the Internet. They are, in most cases, skilled at English, experienced at typing or keyboarding, and have some basic computer literacy (i.e., they probably have at least used a computer for word processing). ESL students, on the other hand, at least in some cases, may lack these basic prerequisites. Though we have had students who are quite experienced with computers, we have also had students who had seldom used a computer; lacked basic knowledge such as how to operate a mouse or open a folder; and lacked the vocabulary, reading, and listening skills to follow instructions for using the computer

Beyond these issues of learner preparation, there are a number of other complexities in introducing Internet-based activities in the ESL classroom. Activities in a single class may be dependent on scheduling the computer lab, and on students finding computers outside the class time to continue their activities. Hardware and software can malfunction and computer systems can be down. Students' schedules might not permit them to return to the computer lab at a time when computers are available to complete their assignments.

Exchanges between classes are even more complex. The partner class might have absent students, or might not meet in a particular week due to holidays or other activities in that location. The partner teacher might not have the same understanding of the nature of the exchange, and working through differences can cause further delays. The students might have differences in background, language, and experience which can cause further complications.

None of these potential problems mean that Internet based activities shouldn't be used. But in attempting to integrate online teaching, it is best not to be overly ambitious in the beginning. A situation which overwhelms both students and teacher in technical difficulties is not likely to bring about the desired results. It is better to start small and to create the kinds of activities which have a direct purpose and are well-integrated into classroom goals. If these activities prove successful, you can build from there and attempt a more ambitious plan the following semester.

#4: Provide Necessary Support
Mindful of the complexities which can arise in Internet usage, teachers need to provide support sufficient to prevent students from being overwhelmed by difficulties. This kind of support can take numerous forms: creating detailed handouts that students can refer to when class is finished and the teacher's personal help is not accessible; building technology training sessions into the class schedule, not only in the beginning but on an ongoing basis; working with the computer center to set up log-on systems and other procedures which are as simple and intuitive as possible; assigning students to work in pairs or groups, both in and out of the lab, so that they can provide assistance to each other; providing details to the students about how and when they can get assistance from technology specialists or others on campus outside of class; and being available to help students at times when they are most likely to need it.

#5: Involve Students in Decisions
The concept of a learner-centered curriculum (Nunan, 1987) predates, and has broader significance, than the Internet enhanced classroom. However, this concept seems particularly important when considering network-based teaching.

First of all, as indicated above, network-based teaching involves a number of special complexities. It will be difficult, indeed, for a teacher to be fully aware of the impact of these complexities without regular consultation with students. This might involve anonymous surveys, class discussions, or similar means of involving students in expressing their opinions about the process of implementing technologies.

Notably favorable is that the nature of computer-mediated communication creates opportunities for more decentered interaction (for summaries, see Warschauer, 1996b; Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996). To fully exploit these opportunities, the teacher must learn to become a "guide on the side" rather than a "sage on the stage". A situation which is based on communication between students but in which the students have little say over the topics or outcomes of that communication is not likely to lead to the kind of atmosphere optimal for language learning.

As pointed out elsewhere (Warschauer, Turbee, & Roberts, 1996), involving students in determining the class direction does not imply a passive role for teachers. Teachers' contributions in a learner-centered, network-enhanced classroom include coordinating group planning, focusing students' attention on linguistic aspects of computer mediated texts, helping students gain meta-linguistic awareness of genres and discourses, and assisting students in developing appropriate learning strategies.

Conclusion
A paper of this length can not completely cover the topic of network-based language teaching. Further information on this topic is available in books (see for example Warschauer, 1995a; Warschauer, 1995b) and on the Internet itself (see for example NETEACH-L at http://thecity.sfsu.edu/~funweb/neteach.htm). In the end though, each teacher will have to find her or his own way, based on the goals of the teacher and the program, the needs of the students, and the materials and technology available. It is hoped that the guidelines outlined in this paper can provide some assistance to teachers attempting to optimally combine their own goals, their students' needs, and the power of the technology-enhanced classroom.

References

Chun, D. (1994). Using computer networking to facilitate the acquisition of interactive competence. System, 22(1), 17-31.

Janda, T. (1995). Breaking the ice: E-mail dialogue journal introductions and responses. In M. Warschauer (Eds.), Virtual Connections: Online Activities and Projects For Networking Language Learners (pp. 57- 58). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Kern, R. (1995). Restructuring classroom interaction with networked computers: Effects on quantity and quality of language production. Modern Language Journal, 79(4), 457-476.

Nunan, D. (1987). The Learner Centered Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sayers, D. (1993). Distance team teaching and computer learning networks. TESOL Journal, 3(1), 19-23.

Wang, Y.M. (1993). E-mail Dialogue Journaling in an ESL Reading and Writing Classroom. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Oregon at Eugene.

Warschauer, M. (1995a). E-mail For English Teaching. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.

Warschauer, M. (1995b). Virtual Connections: Online Activities and Projects For Networking Language Learners. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Warschauer, M. (1996a). Comparing face-to- face and electronic communication in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2), 7-26.

Warschauer, M. (1996b). Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: Theory and Practice (Research Note No. 17). University of Hawai'i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Warschauer, M. (1996c). Motivational aspects of using computers for writing and communication. In M. Warschauer (Eds.), Telecollaboration in Foreign Language Learning: Proceedings of the Hawai'i Symposium. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Warschauer, M. (1996d). Telecollaboration in Foreign Language Learning: Proceedings of the Hawai'i Symposium. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.

Warschauer, M., Turbee, L., & Roberts, B. (1996). Computer learning networks and student empowerment. System, 14(1), 1-14.

About the Authors

* Mark Warschauer is a researcher at the University of Hawaii investigating new technologies in language learning. He has trained teachers in computer assisted language learning in Europe, Asia, and the United States. His published books include E-Mail for English Teaching, Virtual Connections, and Telecollaboration in Foreign Language Learning.

* P. Fawn Whittaker is Language Center Director and ESL Instructor at Brigham Young University-Hawaii Campus. She has integrated ESL reading and writing studies with computer and accompanying internet support in several of her intermediate and advanced ESL courses. She advises Center (http://lc.byuh.edu) and student web page development (http://lc.byuh.edu/EIL_WORLD/EILW.html).

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